Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions inventory for Fischer-Tropsch fuels, (http://www.eesi.org/files/netl_emissions_060001.pdf), accessed on 18 February 2014. Prior to this, all jet fuel had to be refined from petroleum sources. Standard test methods for surface and interfacial tension of solutions of paints, solvents, solutions of surface-active agents, and related materials, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. ASTM D3278. Studied of jet fuel thermal stability, oxidation, and additives using an isothermal oxidation apparatus equipped with an oxygen sensor,Energy & Fuels13(3), 756-760. Cancer morbidity and mortality in . Cryogenic hydrogen can be used as a liquid at temperatures below 20 K. Gaseous hydrogen involves pressurized tanks at 250350 bar. 3. Aviation fuel must be checked daily and before every flight for contaminants such as water or dirt. The temperature at which the flame was observed was recorded. 2014). According to ASTM D1655 (2004), the acid number of jet fuels should be less than 0.1 mg KOH/g. JavaScript required. An increase in the jet fuel flash point specification will result in shifts of fuel properties. Fig. According to ASTM D7566 (2017), the maximum allowed in AJF is 75 ppm. However, I would be interested in other opinions. The hydrogen content estimated by the molecular formula is 15.06 mass % which is closer to the value obtained by the AFRL. Piston-engined aircraft use leaded gasoline and those with diesel engines may use jet fuel (kerosene). %, AJF 6: 73.18 wt. Expanding domestic SAF production can help sustain the benefits of our biofuel industry and forge new economic benefits, creating and securing employment opportunities across the country. A techno-economic and environmental assessment of hydroprocessed renewable distillate fuels,Massachusetts Institute of Technology(http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/65508/746766700.pdf?sequence=1), acessed 20 February 2014. Maurice, L. Q., Lander, H., Edwards, T., and Harrison, W. E. (2001). Coordinating Research Council Incorporated (1983). To achieve that, civil aviation in 2015 generated about 781 million tons of CO2 corresponding to 2% anthropogenic emissions of this greenhouse gas, and all required energy is derived from fossil sources. Tasks that use AVGAS-based aircraft are typically on a smaller scale and include crop-dusting, private flying, and flight training. Part 1: On the role of phenol, indole, and carbazole derivatives in the thermal oxidative stabilty of Fischer-Tropsh/petroleum jet fuel blends,Energy & Fuels23(4), 2041-2046. The cloud point and pour point are estimated by tracing a tangent to the left and right sides of the curve, respectively, at the point the line meets the base. The sample collected from SPE was analyzed by GC-MS. The base (shoulder) of the peaks, indicated by diamond mark, represents the measured cloud point temperatures. Naturally, if the fuel doesnt meet the defined minimum, the jet engine runs the risk of excessive deposit buildup over the course of the fuels use. An estimated 1 billion dry tons of biomass can be collected sustainably each year in the United States, enough to produce 5060 billion gallons of low-carbon biofuels. When naphthenic acids are added alone to fuel, there is little effect on the rate of hydroperoxide decomposition. 2005; Wrightet al. Producing SAF from wet wastes, like manure and sewage sludge, reduces pollution pressure on watersheds, while also keeping potent methane gasa key contributor to climate changeout of the atmosphere. 120306 per kilo litre and Rs. AVIATION FuEL "PROPERTIES .I. Reviewing the Defense Energy Support Center's Petroleum Quality Information System (PQIS) data for 2005 reveals the following values: 8.28% of the samples had values of 43.37 MJ/kg. There are several types of jet fuel, with the main ones being: Jet A is primarily used in the United States. Aircraft Fuel Tank Material. Aromatic Content & Smoke Point these are related concepts. The high amount of aromatics in AJF 1 increased the density value to above the upper limit. The analysis for carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen was conducted in a 630-100-300 RFB TRUSPEC CHN, serial number 4299, software version 2.71. Standard Note SN00523 (2012)", "REPORT on a European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility - A8-0356/2017", "Does the government subsidise airlines by 10 billion? We say helpful because D1655 goes beyond simply listing out and defining the minimum and maximum values aviation fuel needs to have in its properties, but it goes a step further that we want to touch on here. This includes the certification process for existing fuels such as E85, biodiesel, and other alternative fuels, which will be critical to certifying and accelerating new forms of low-carbon SAFs for use. ASTM D1655 (2004) establishes a minimum flash point of 38 C. 2006). Studies of jet fuel freezing by differential scanning calorimetry,Energy & Fuels15(6), 1447-1453. Differential scanning calorimetry (TA Instruments DSC Q2000) was performed to study the cold flow properties. Eng. All the deviations from current jet fuel specifications are likely to be compensated by blending the alternative jet fuels to the commercially available jet fuels. @article{osti_1880801, title = {Pathways to a Sustainable Aviation Ecosystem: Accelerated Sustainable Aviation Fuel Properties Modeling}, author = {}, abstractNote = {With world-class models and supercomputing capabilities combined with accurate property measurement, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) can turn even the most complex sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) property . They are kerosene-based (JP-8 and Jet A-1) for gas turbine-powered aircraft. (2011) studied the chemical, thermal stability, seal swell, and emission of six alternative jet fuels (three from Fischer Tropsch and three from hydroprocessing). After adding the KOH solution, a 12 min interval was allowed for color to develop and then, the absorbance was measured using a Shimadzu UV-2550PC UV/Vis Spectrophotometer at 480 nm, using a 1-cm cell. paper, we present the application of the technique to representative batches of the military aviation fuel JP-8, and also to a coal-derived fuel developed as a potential substitute. Measurements of jet fuel in air at some work places in 1975 and 1976 showed concentrations exceeding 350 mg/m 3. Important Reasons Not to Ignore Sludge and Biomass in Farm Fuel Storage Tanks, The 3 Elements of Agricultural & Farm Fuel Contamination, The importance of microbial fuel testing for aviation, Aviation Has A New Partner For Solving Fuel Problems, Great Hospitals Know The Truth About Stored Fuel Maintenance. For the response factor calculation, solutions of the internal standard with 2,2-dimethoxy-propane; hydroxy-acetic acid (glycolic acid); 2,5-dimethyl-2-hexanol; 3,4-dimethyl-3-hexanol; 5-methyl-3-hexanol, 2,4,4-trimethyl-1-pentanol; 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)-ethanol; cyclohexyl-ethanol; 3,4-dimethyl-phenol; 2,3,5-trimethyl-phenol, 2,4,6-trimethyl-phenol; 2-propyl-phenol, 3,4,5-trimethyl-phenol; 4-methoxycinnamic acid; tropic acid; 4-butyl-phenol; 2-hydroxyphenylacetic acid; 4-pentyl-phenol; phytol; 2-methyl-phenol (o-cresol); 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)-ethanol; 2,4-dimethyl-phenol, and 2-ethyl-phenol were prepared. The most abundant molecule was 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)-ethanol, followed by 2-methylphenol. SSJF consists of up to 50% of an isoparaffinic kerosene produced from . Marano, J., and Ciferno, J. Equilibrium water content in the jet fuel was then measured using Karl Fischer titration with a Mettler Toledo C20 Compact Karl Fischer Coulometer that has a measurement range of 1ppm to 5% of water in samples (Lamet al. According to the Handbook of Aviation Fuel Properties (Coordinating Research Council Incorporated 1983), at the temperature of the test, Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8, together with JP-7 and TS, solubilize between 0.002 and 0.003 wt. The presence of even minor quantity of water can cause filter plugging at high altitudes, where the low temperature causes water to freeze. The results are listed in Table 14. The application created by Purdue researchers works in conjunction with a 2D chromatography to accurately determine fuel properties including density . Each day, our highly trained and dedicated staff safely and efficiently refuel more than 6,000 aircraft in more than 55 countries globally. AVGAS notably is still produced tetraethyl lead (TEL), which is a toxic additive used to prevent engine knocking. The aperture on fuel tanks of aircraft requiring avgas cannot be greater than 60millimetres in diameter. Handbook of aviation fuel properties. Avgas must meet performance guidelines for both the rich mixture condition required for take-off power settings and the leaner mixtures used during cruise to reduce fuel consumption. 13.28% of the samples had values of 43.38 MJ/kg. FRC: Pulp and Paper Fundamental Research Symposia Proceedings, Distance Education: Online Masters Degree & Individual Courses. This process is repeated three times, and the average value obtained is inserted in the instrument for reference. [7] Sustainable aviation fuel and blends of fossil and sustainably-sourced alternative fuels yield lower emissions of particles[8] and GHGs. In Europe Jet A-1 is the main civil jet fuel used (Mauriceet al. Therefore, it is expected that the amount of organic acids will also be higher in this fuel, as observed. However, the values where according to the defined in the material safety data sheet received with the fuels. Fuels AJF 1, AJF 2, AJF 4 and AJF 6 did not show any peaks within the range of temperature used in this analysis. 2014; Shao and Agblevor 2015). 6. The identification and quantification of oxygenated molecules is important for understanding if the deoxygenation step is being efficient and what kind of oxygenated molecules remain in the fuels. Figure 5 shows the viscosity of fuels as a function of temperature in an Arrhenius plot. %, AJF 9: 120.48 wt. from publication: Effect of dicarboxylic acid esters on the lubricity of aviation kerosene for use in CI engines | To reduce their fuel related . jet) fuels. Some airports have pumps similar to filling stations to which aircraft must taxi. Because there is only one attachment point, fuel distribution between tanks is either automated or it is controlled from a control panel at the fueling point or in the cockpit. Average Surface Tension of the Jet Fuels and the Associated Standard Deviations. The major compounds identified are marked with numbers, and the name, residence time, molecular form and classification of these molecules are listed on Table 3. A series of standards using 2-butanone diluted in methanol was used for calibration. The samples analyzed were prepared using around 4 g of jet fuel and the pressure in the vessel was set to 30 bar (ASTM D4809 (2013)). SAFs lower carbon intensity makes it an important solution for reducing aviation GHGs, which make up 9%12% of U.S. transportation GHG emissions, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003; Zabarnick and Widmor 2001). Database Capture of Jet Fuel Properties Lead investigator: D. Johnson, Metron Aviation Project manager: A. Jardines, FAA AEE . The content of carbonyl groups was determined using a spectrophotometric technique (ASTM E411 (2012)). Logarithmic plot of the viscosity (mm2/s) in function of 1/T [K-1]. Avgas is a specialized fuel used to power piston engine aircraft. in English - 2004 3rd ed. The concentration of carbonyl compounds was lower than 0.000246 wt. JET A-1 is a kerosene-type fuel. Aromatic components are also precursors to contrails, which can exacerbate the impacts of climate change. 2014). Standard test methods for instrumental determination of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen in petroleum products and lubricants, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. ASTM D6304. For pressure refueling, a high-pressure hose is attached and fuel is pumped in at 275kPa (40psi) and a maximum of 310kPa (45psi) for most commercial aircraft. Mawhood, R., Gazis, E., de Jong, S., Hoefnagels, R., and Slade, R. (2016). The pycnometer was completely filled with fuel and closed with a stopper. 2 mL sample was placed in the cup for testing and the initial temperature was set to the expected flash point for each fuel. SAF stands for sustainable aviation fuel. 5. Performance Properties Since the primary function of aviation turbine fuel (jet fuel) is to power an aircraft,energy content and combustion quality are key fuel. 2008; Henrichet al. The operation of a typical aircraft fuel system. The data collected by AFRL was also obtained by this method, and it is described in ASTM D6304 (2007). Sustainable Aviation Fuel: Safe, Reliable, Low Carbon. 2820 Faucette Dr., Campus Box 8001Raleigh, NC 27695. The pour point estimation is indicated by a circle mark. One promising approach to achieve this goal is the use of alternative jet fuels derived from renewable resources (Poppet al. The oxygenated compounds may be attracted to the localized electron density. According to ASTM D1655 (2004), the density of Jet A / Jet A-1 fuel must be in the range of 0.775 g/mL to 0.840 g/mL at 15 C. Aviation fuels high energy storage capability is what enables long-distance flights. Aviation batteries in their current state are bulkier and more inefficient than fossil fuels, currently making the fuel type ideal for short-term flights and light cargo transportation. The more we know about the whys of the fuels we use, the better we understand them and the more aware we can be of potential problems that are commonly seen (along with a much better understanding of what to do about them). The ideal would have standards that match as much as possible the physical and chemical characteristics of the compounds of interest. Studies of jet fuel autoxidation chemistry: Catalytic hydroperoxide decomposition & high heat flux effects, PhD Dissertation, University of Dayton. 1986). All were prepared in a concentration of about 1 mg of compound per 1 g solvent (methanol). %, AJF 4: 48.56 wt. It is calculated based on the mass of water formed, which can be obtained by the hydrogen content of fuel, as each two moles of hydrogen are necessary to form one mole of water (2 grams of H forms 18 grams of water). Influence of compound structure and comparison to petrodiesel fuel components,Fuel84(9), 1059-1065. The distillation value influences both how volatile the fuel is and how easy it vaporizes (mixes with the air prior to combustion). Many phenols are approved for use as antioxidants in jet fuel; however, their presence in the fuel is related to thermal and oxidative deposit (Sobkowiaket al. Chem. NREL has extensive knowledge in the process of bringing new fuels to market. None of the studied fuels presented more than 75 ppm of water in its composition. The fact that they are present in trace amount, associated to the limitation of mass spectral library, made it difficult to get conclusive identification. Oven temperature was set at 45oC for 10 min and then increased to 250oC at the rate of 3oC/min and final hold time was 5 min. The fuels with high contents of light molecules have the lowest flash points (AJFs 1, 6, and 8). There are many other properties we havent touched on copper strip corrosion, total acidity, existent gum content and flash point. Acetone was used as solvent and 0.1 M KOH in DI water standardized with potassium hydrogen phthalate was used as titrant (Shao and Agblevor 2015). Wu, L., Hu, X., Mourant, D., Wang, Y., Kelly, C., Garcia-Perez, M., He, M., and Li, C.-Z. Table 3. Jet fuel produced from petroleum refining typically comply with ASTM requirements and its production is very reliable. Table 12 shows the value of HHV from the experiment and the calculated LHV of fuels. According to ASTM D1655 (2004), the density of Jet A / Jet A-1 fuel must be in the range of 0.775 g/mL to 0.840 g/mL at 15 C. BETO is working with, SAF from wet waste, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Drawing on stores of carbon energy in cheap, widely available food waste, animal manure, and other wastes with high water content, SAF from wet waste is a carbon-negative fuel, Bio-based polycyclic alkane SAF, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Standard test method for determination of water in petroleum products, lubricating oils , and additives by coulometric karl fischer titration, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. ASTM D7566. Fuels have to conform to a specification in order to be approved for use in type certificated aircraft. % of total quantified oil). 2010; Stapleset al. The standard ASTM D7566 (2017) establishes a maximum of 75 ppm of water in the AJF (DSHC, Fischer-Tropsch, ATJ, and HEFA). (2012)reported experimental studies on the derived cetane number, autoignition response, laminar flame speed, and extinction stretch rate for premixed combustion of alternative jet fuels. This relationship was not clearly verified in this experiment as, for instance, fuels with higher content of carbon (AJF 1, CJF 1, and AJF 3) presented lower viscosity values. This is confirmed by the recently undertaken research programmes, e.g. It also limits how high the Final Boiling Point can be, because that temperature is heavily influenced by the amount of larger, heavier molecules that are mixed into the fuel. jet) fuels. Thus, grade 91 fuel has the same knock characteristics as a blend of 91 percent iso octane and 9 percent normal heptane. A., and Brown, R. C. (2010). Catalytic hydrodeoxygenation,Applied Catalysis A. 199, 147-190. *Six samples were tested in triplicate, and the standard deviation associated is also related in this table. Table 14. (2006). Forrestal Building1000 Independence Avenue, SWWashington, DC 20585, Learn more about this multi-agency strategy on the, Sustainable AviationFuel: Safe, Reliable, Low Carbon, SAFs lower carbon intensity makes it an important solution for reducing aviation GHGs, which make up 9%12% of, A Menu of Sustainable Feedstocks for Producing SAF. Similar to diesel fuel, it can be used in either compression ignition engines or turbine engines. Pressure for military aircraft, especially fighters, ranges up to 415kPa (60psi). In partnership with biorefiners, aviation companies, and farmers, BETO-funded researchers are developing novel pathways for producing SAFs from renewable and waste feedstocks that meet strict fuel specifications for use in existing airplanes and infrastructure. In simple terms, lead is used in aviation fuel because its anti-knock properties enhance the octane rating of aviation fuel, which is necessary for the efficient combustion of fuel. Once the lab and ground testing have been completed, the fuel is tested on aircraft . Any fueling operation can be very dangerous, and aviation operations have characteristics which must be accommodated. These fuels are collectively referred to as "Sustainable Aviation Fuel" (SAF). [25] Furthermore, the planned inclusion of international aviation into the European Union Emission Trading Scheme in 2014 has been called an 'illegal tax' by countries including the US and China, which cite the Chicago Convention.[26]. As reference, an empty sample pan was used (Widmoret al. Fuel corrosion problems are associated with the presence of acids. ATLANTA. Sci. West, Z. J. Although the aviation industry contribution to CO2emissions is much lower than other segments of the transport industry (only contributes to 2% of total GHG emissions) (Rosillo-Calleet al. A substantial fuel spray characterization effort was conducted to . Weight percentage of each class of hydrocarbons identified in the commercial jet fuels by GC-MS. 2011). They have excellent cold flow characteristics. If your business relies on fuel, you'll want to get our tips for storing fuel and cutting fuel costs delivered right to your inbox! (2015). (2005). %. The ignition source was applied, and when the flash was observed, the sample was cooled down by 5 C and the flame was again applied every 1 C after this temperature, until a flame was observed. My personal opinion would be to use black steel pipe, and paint the exterior with a zinc-rich primer and acrylic or epoxy. The authors are very thankful to Dr. Tim Edwards from the Air force research lab for so kindly supplying the alternative jet fuel samples studied in this project and some of the analyses shown in this manuscript. To prevent this, aircraft are electrically bonded to the fueling apparatus before fueling begins, and are not disconnected until after fueling is complete. 2008; Chuck and Donnelly 2014a). Standard test method for trace quantities of carbonyl compounds with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. Balster, L. M., Corporan, E., DeWitt, M. J., Edwards, J. T., Ervin, J. S., Graham, J. L., Lee, S.-Y., Pal, S., Phelps, D. K., Rudnick, L. R., Santoro, R. J., Schobert, H. H., Shafer, L. M., Striebich, R. C., West, Z. J., Wilson, G. R., Woodward, R., and Zabarnick, S. (2008). % for Alcohol to Jet and up to 50 wt. They need to be blended with other AJFs or with CJFs. %, AJF 5: 114.63 wt. of the fuels. 2011; Wuet al. It is then pumped over and dispensed from a tanker or bowser. Most of the AJF pathways of interest to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), ASTM, CAAFI, and the industry rely on a final deoxygenation step through catalytic hydrotreatment (hydrogenation, hydrocracking, hydrodeoxygenation). Its important to emphasize that the presence of olefins in jet fuels is undesirable, as these are the most reactive class of hydrocarbons. Aviation fuel can be used as CNG fuel. (2015). The much higher energy storage capability of hydrocarbon fuels compared to batteries has so far prevented electric aircraft using electric batteries as the main propulsion energy store becoming viable for even small personal aircraft. Fig. [6], Fuels such as sustainable aviation fuel have the advantage that few or no modifications are necessary on the aircraft itself, provided that the fuel characteristics meet specifications for lubricity and density as well as adequately swelling elastomer seals in current aircraft fuel systems. Accelerated Sustainable Aviation Fuel Properties Modeling Airlines, fuel refiners, and federal agencies are investing heavily to accelerate the production of climate-friendly sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). Alcohol, alcohol mixtures, and other alternative fuels may be used experimentally, but alcohol is not permitted in any certified aviation fuel specification. __________________. It is a high-quality fuel; if it fails the purity and other quality tests for use on jet aircraft, it is sold to ground-based users with less demanding requirements, such as railroads.[4]. Quantification of strong and weak acidities in bio-oil via non-aqueous potentiometric titration,Fuel115, 652-659. Aviation fuels are tested extensively in the points downstream of manufacture and this session . World Jet Fuel Specifications, 1-47. Hileman, J. I., and Stratton, R. W. (2014). 3 and 4. Effects of fuel aromatic content on nonvolatile particle emissions of an in-production aircraft gas turbine,Environmental Science & Technology49, 13149-13157. Four different concentrations (0.1, 0.5, 1 and 5 mg/g) were prepared using HPLC grade methanol as solvent. Lam, J. K. W., Carpenter, M. D., Williams, C. A., and Hetherington, J. I. Speed = 5; Mov. Starck, L., Pidol, L., Jeuland, N., Chapus, T., Bogers, P., and Bauldreay, J. Aviation fuel property and performance data has been gathered for many years in public and company specific fuel surveys. The chemical composition and fuel properties of nine alternative jet fuels (named as AJF 1-9) and three commercial jet fuels (named as CJF 1, 2 and 3) are reported in this work. Viscosity we all have a basic concept of what viscosity is. Table 11. 7 mL of sample was inserted in each glass viscometer and time was allowed for the sample to reach bath temperature. In history, hydrogen has been actively explored to be used as an aircraft fuel since the 17th century. 635; Coordinating Research Council (CRC): Alpharetta, GA, 2004 . This result can be explained by the high content of aromatics in this fuel (Hemighauset al. This is an indication that the amount of aromatic compounds in fuels must be controlled. Waste carbon monoxide from industrial processes can be captured and upgraded with bacteria into ethanol for easy conversion into alcohol-to-jet SAF. HANDBOOK OF AVIATION FUEL PROPERTIES ", ". 2013). Interested in learning more about aviation maintenance and pursuing it as a career? A general summary of the downstream testing (beyond the point of manufacture) to the airplane. For those with 8 to 17 carbons, C-7 to C-18 standards were used, respectively. Avgas is sold in much lower volume than jet fuel, but to many more individual aircraft operators; whereas jet fuel is sold in high volume to large aircraft operators, such as airlines and militaries. The difference between the compositions is related to the different feedstocks and processes used to produce them. These fuels have similar properties, but the limit value for freezing point of Jet A is higher (-40 C) than for Jet A-1 (-47 C) (Lenz and Aicher 2005). Task 40, Sustainable International Bioenergy Trade. However, due to the complexity of some compounds, there were no standards commercially available. The deviation from specifications caused by phenols can be compensated by blending the AJF to the commercial fuel. Table 13 shows the flash point of fuels and the spec data from AFRL, for comparison. . aaaa. The properties of avgas must be properly balanced to give reliable and safe engine performance over a wide range of aircraft operating conditions. The fuel is then driven up to parked aircraft and helicopters. The equilibrium water content represents how much water a fuel can absorb from a saturated ambient in a certain temperature. The content of aromatics in jet fuels for engine certification is typically between 15 and 23 vol. G100UL, the first unleaded AVGAS (produced by General Electric), was FAA approved in mid-2021! Table 2. Thermal oxidative stability of coal-based jp-900 jet fuel: impact on selected physical properties, PhD dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University. [1], Jet-A powers modern commercial airliners and is a mix of extremely refined kerosene and burns at temperatures at or above 49C (120F). The results obtained at WSU and the AFRL are listed in Fig. %), and water solubility, lowest calorific value, and high surface tension. Nevertheless, the concern with increasing levels of carbon emissions, crude oil price volatility, and its impact on global warming is a serious concern for the aviation sector. Weight percentage of each class of hydrocarbons identified in the alternative jet fuels by GC-MS, Fig. Different samples of jet fuels, including 10 alternative fuels and 3 commercial fossil-derived jet fuel were analyzed to study the general presence of acids in fuels. This is due to the composition of this fuel, which has basically only one compound, decreasing the volatility of the fuel. There are two sections in D1655 that are linked together. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews32, 559578. By means of saving sample, the experiment was conduct once for the other seven fuels. GC/MS chromatograph of alternative jet fuels. Table 8 shows the carbonyl content of the jet fuel samples analyzed. Some regions require the aircraft and/or fuel truck to be grounded too. 33(5), 1348-1354. Fuel properties, having a direct influence on the appearance of emergencies can be grouped by having their effect on reliability of: the fuel pump (antiwear, corrosivity, admixtures content); the fuel system in high altitude conditions (volatility, viscosity, water and resinous compounds contents, crystallization of the fuel, its thermal . Description of these technologies can be found elsewhere (Stapleset al. Zhanget al. The fuels were characterized by GC/MS, SEP-GC/MS (for quantification of oxygenated molecules), viscosity, density, water content, water solubility at 0 C, carbonyl content, total acid number, elemental composition, calorific value, flash point, differential scanning calorimetry, and surface tension. Experimental studies on the combustion characteristics of alternative jet fuels,Fuel98, 176-182. International Air Transport Association. The bigger the molecule, the harder it is to vaporize, so refiners try to limit the amount of these to keep the aviation fuel properly volatile. ASTM D1655 (2004) establishes a viscosity limit at -20 C of 8 mm2/s for Jet A/Jet A-1, and 8.5 mm2/s for JP-5. Aviation gasoline, often referred to as "avgas" or 100-LL (low-lead), is a highly refined form of gasoline for aircraft, with an emphasis on purity, anti-knock characteristics and minimization of spark plug fouling. Studies of jet fuel freezing by differential scanning calorimetry and cold-stage microscopy,Transactions of the ASME125, 34-39. DSC results for the alternative jet fuel samples. Source publication +7. BETO Research Brings More SAF to the Market. This is the same kind of table found in D975, listing the required properties of the fuel, the required values, and (if applicable) the specific test method (preferably ASTM or IP) that determines the value.
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